Alternanthera sessilis పొన్నగంటికూర

Indian names of this plant are

 Koypa (Marathi), 

Honganne (Kannada),

 Ponnaganti koora (Telugu),పొన్నగంటికూర,

Ponnanganni Keerai(பொன்னாங்கண்ணி கீரை)(Tamil). 

Leaves along with the flowers and tender stems are used as vegetable in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu. It is diuretic, tonic and cooling. Juice of this plant, deemed beneficial to eyes, is an ingredient in the making of medicinal hair oils and Kajal (kohl). The red variety of this plant is a common garden hedging plant, which is also used as a culinary vegetable.

The plant occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World. It has been introduced to the southern United States, and its origins in Central and South America are uncertain.

The leaves are used as a vegetable.^[2] Young shoots and leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Southeast Asia. Occasionally it is cultivated for food or for use in herbal medicines.

This species is classified as a weed in parts of the southern States of the USA. It is usually (but not always especially in areas of high humidity where it can even be a garden weed) found in wet or damp spots.

This is a perennial herb with prostrate stems, rarely ascending, often rooting at the nodes. Leaves obovate to broadly elliptic, occasionally linear-lanceolate, 1–15 cm long, 0.3–3 cm wide, glabrous to sparsely villous, petioles 1–5 mm long. Flowers in sessile spikes, bract and bracteoles shiny white, 0.7-1.5 mm long, glabrous; sepals equal, 2.5–3 mm long, outer ones 1-nerved or indistinctly 3-nerved toward base; stamens 5, 2 sterile. In the wild it flowers from December till March.

Purslane gardening

English: Purslane, Garden purslane, Pigweed, Hogweed
Hindi: Khulpha, Khursa,
Bengali: Lunia, Bara Lunia
Maharashtrian: Ghol
Tamil: Pachiri
Gujarati: Luni bhaji
Telugu: Gangapaayala, Peddapaayala, Payala kura, Peddapaavila aaku koora, Goli Kura
Kannada: Doddagoni Soppu
Arabic: Ba’le, Bakli, Farfhin, Arnuba, Bighal, Barabra (Maghrib), Rijl, Rujila, Al-hamqa, Al-baqla, Badalqa, Kharqa
Armenian: Perper
Urdu: Kulfa ki bhaji
Greek: Glystiritha, Andrakln
Italian: Portulaca, Porcellana, Perchjazza (Bari, Apulia)
Spanish: Verdolaga
French: Pourpier potager
Turkish: Semizotu, Temizlik (Aksaray Province)

Scientific Name(s): Portulaca oleracea L. Family: Portulacaceae (Purslane)

Uses

Purslane has been used as a vegetable source of omega-3 fatty acids and is high in vitamins and minerals. It possesses marked antioxidant activity. Roles in abnormal uterine bleeding, asthma, type 2 diabetes, and oral lichen planus are suggested; however, clinical studies are limited and diverse in nature.

History

In ancient times, purslane was used to protect against evil spirits. Purslane's medicinal use dates back at least 2,000 years, but it was used as food well before this period. Traditional medicinal uses for purslane are broad. Ancient Romans used purslane to treat dysentery, intestinal worms, headache, and stomachache. The Chinese, French, Italians, and English also used purslane as a food source. 

m Search

Purslane nutrition facts

Soft, succulent purslane leaves have more omega-3 fatty acids than in some of the fish oils. If you are a vegetarian and pledge to avoid all forms of animal products, then here is the answer! Go for this healthy dark-green leafy vegetable and soon you will forget fish!

Botanically, this herbaceous leafy vegetable belongs to the family of Portulacaceae and scientifically known asPortulaca oleracea.

Other common names in place for this green leafy are pursley, pigweed, or verdolaga.

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea).	Purslane herb.

Purslane is native to Indian sub-continent and now distributed widely across the continents but actually as a wild weed. There exist varieties of pusley with variation in leaf size, thickness, and leaf arrangement and pigment distribution. This hardy herb plant requires relatively less water and soil nutrients and grows well sunny sunny climates. The plant grows up to 12-15 cm in height as a low-lying spread.

Pursley is widely grown in many Asian and European regions as a staple leafy vegetable. Its leaves appear thick, contain mucilaginous substance, and have a slightly sour and salty taste. Leaves and tender stems are edible. In addition to succulent stems and leaves, its yellow flower buds are also favored, especially in salads.

Purslane seeds, appear like black tea powder granules, are often used to make some herbal drinks.

Health benefits of Purslane

• This wonderful green leafy vegetable is very low in calories (just 16 kcal/100g) and fats; nonetheless, it is rich in dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
• Fresh leaves contain surprisingly more omega-3 fatty acids (a-linolenic acid) than any other leafy vegetable plant. 100 grams of fresh purslane leaves provide about 350 mg of alpha-linolenic acid. Research studies show that consumption of foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and help prevent the development of ADHD, autism, and other developmental differences in children.
• It is an excellent source of Vitamin A, (1320 IU/100 g, provides 44% of RDA) one of the highest among green leafy vegetables. Vitamin A is a known powerful natural antioxidant and an essential vitamin for vision. it is also required to maintain healthy mucusa and skin. Consumption of natural vegetables and fruits rich in vitamin A is known to help to protect from lung and oral cavity cancers.
• Purslane is also a rich source of vitamin C, and some B-complex vitamins like riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine and carotenoids, as well as dietary minerals, such as iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and manganese.
• Furthermore, present in purslane are two types of betalain alkaloid pigments, the reddish beta-cyanins and the yellow beta-xanthins. Both pigment types are potent anti-oxidants and have been found to have anti-mutagenic properties in laboratory studies. [Proc. West. Pharmacol. Soc. 45: 101-103 (2002)].

Growing Purslane

The hardest part about growing purslane is finding it. Once you have decided to grow purslane, you may find that although you have been pulling it out of your flower beds for years, it has suddenly disappeared. Once you do find a purslane plant, you can either harvest some seeds or trim off a few stems.

All purslane needs to grow is part to full sun and clear ground. They are not picky about soil type or nutrition, but, purslane does tend to grow better in drier soil.

If you decide to plant purslane seeds, simply scatter the seeds over the area that you plan on growing the purslane. Do not cover the seeds with soil. Purslane seeds need light to germinate so they must stay on the surface of the soil.If you are using purslane cuttings, lay them on the ground where you plan on growing purslane. Water the stems and they should take root in the soil in a few days.

Care of Purslane Plant

The care of purslane is very simple after it starts growing. You don’t need to do anything. The same traits that make it a weed also makes it an easy to care for herb.

Make sure to harvest it regularly and be aware that it can become invasive. Harvesting before it develops flowers will help cut down on its spreading.

Also, keep in mind that purslane herb is an annual. While the chances are high that it will reseed itself, you may want to collect some seeds at the end of the season so that you have some on hand for next year, rather than having to go hunt for a new purslane plant.

If you decide to harvest wild purslane instead of growing purslane, make sure that you only harvest purslane that has not been treated with pesticides or herbicides.

• 
  

Bag gardens

Bag/Sack gardens, also known as “vertical farms or gardens”, are tall sacks filled with soil from which plant life grows. This concept for a small, portable garden is good for areas where the gardener may have to continually relocate, as well as for areas where there is little or no healthy soil (as the soil in the bag is contained). Due to their vertical nature, sack gardens are also fairly efficient in terms of using water.

Most of the initiatives and projects concerning sack gardens have been or are being conducted in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya, where the lack of appropriate farm land combined with the very low incomes and employment rates of families and individuals, as well as natural disasters such as landslides, result in very poor food security.

Several initiatives aimed at providing and training in the use of these sack gardens have reported high levels of success in terms of improving nutrition, food security, and income.

One has to note that sack gardens, although suitable for areas with traditional gardening challenges, can hardly compete with conventionalkitchen gardens when they are feasible.

The term “sack garden” is sometimes also used to describe horizontal bag gardens, which are simply bags laid on one side with their other side cut open, so that the bag functions like a pot or trough.

Opportunities for applying sack gardens

The main advantages of sack gardens are their portability, low size, low cost, efficiency, productivity, and contributions to food security. These traits make them ideal in situations such as:

• Where investing in a traditional garden is too risky due to fear of expropriation or where individuals have no legal right to their land. By having a garden in a sack that one can move and put wherever they want, it becomes a more stable investment.
• Where population density and scarcity of arable prevent traditional gardening.
• Where contaminated soil is present.
• Where there is a high chance of natural disasters such as floods or mudslides.
• Where there is not enough ground-level sunlight to grow vegetables.
• Where drought is common or water very limited.
• Where there is a food crisis. Small scale homestead vegetable growing can greatly alleviate pressure from relief efforts.
• Where there are community development initiatives and programs aiming to address community vulnerabilities.
• To complement school garden initiatives with non-traditional urban gardening techniques.
• Where there is a little adult labour available. That is, child and female headed households, elderly headed households, households with chronically ill adults. Sack gardens are advantageous here due to their low physical requirements (they do not require ploughing or weeding, and the only heavy lifting involved is in moving the sack garden should the need arise).
• Where unemployment rates are high and the selling of even a small amount of plant life and seeds can improve household incomes.

How to make a bag garden[edit]

Image	Step
	Step 1: Necessary Materials. A woven burlap or plastic bag, such as a used food aid sack. A 1m3 bag will provide around 5m2 of accessible, farmable surface area. Enough soil or dirt mixed with compost or animal manure to fill the bag. Enough small stones to fill about a quarter to half of the bag. Seedlings of whatever plant life is desired. Common choices include tomatoes, onions, spinach, kale, spider plant, squash, amaranth, fodder, and African nightshade, with kale currently enjoying the most success. A knife or other device capable of cutting through the bag. Enough water to water the bag garden every day. Although not necessary, a can or tin with no bottom and top is a helpful tool for assembling bag gardens. This guide will include the use of a hollow can to demonstrate its usefulness. The total cost of the described bag garden, assuming the bag was discarded from a food aid sack, the fertilizer was collected from local wildlife or population refuse, is the initial price of the seeds or seedlings (from which further seeds and seedlings can then be grown) and the continual price of the necessary water.
	Step 2: Create the Base. Fill the bottom of the bag or sack with soil. Place the hollow can in the middle of the soil and then fill it with rocks – this is used as the watering system for the bag garden. Water is poured over the rocks and it slowly filters through the stones, gradually watering the vegetables without flooding them.
	Step 3: Build Up. Fill the area around the can with soil up to about the top lip of the can. The can should now be pulled up, letting the stones fall out of the bottom so that the stones are in the middle of the dirt. Keep the can on top of the rock center and refill it again.
	Step 4: Fill the Bag. Repeat step 3 until the bag has been filled. The bag should now contain an uninterrupted core of rocks surrounded by earth all the way to the top.
	Step 5: Cut Sites for Plant Growth. Make a number of holes in the side of the bag at an even distance apart. These holes are where most if not all of the seedlings are going to be transplanted to.
	Step 6: Transplant Seedlings. Transplant seedlings into the holes on the sides.
	Step 7: Plant on the Top. Either plant seeds or transplant more seedlings into the open top of the bag. Since this is the only horizontal surface for growth on the bag, consider using the top for tubers.
	Step 8: Use. Maintain, water, care for, and harvest; as necessary. Always water from above to utilize the rock irrigation channel.
	Step 9: Recycling. Bag gardens can be used to grow plants during one growing season. After the plants die, the dead plants and roots should be taken out of the dirt. Once the growing season is over, the bag should be emptied, with the stones and any dead roots taken out of the dirt. The bag garden can be made again for the next growing season using the same instructions and materials, though the old dirt should be mixed with new manure, compost, or fertilizer.

Cultivation of Garlic (Allium sativum)

Garlic:

Botanical Name: Allium sativum L.

Family: 

Amarylidaceae.

Garlic is one of the important bulb crops. It is used as a spice or condiment through India. The compound bulb of garlic consists of several small bulblets or cloves. Garlic is generally cultivated in A. P, U.P, Madras and Gujarat.

Composition and Use:

Garlic has been considered as a rich source of Carbohydrates, proteins Phosphorus. Garlic contains allin. Its principle ingredient is diallyl disulfide. It contains volatile oil. Garlic helps indigestion. It reduces cholesterol in human blood.

Climate and Season:

It grows under a wide range of climatic conditions. However. It cannot stand too hot or cold weather. It prefers a moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter extremely hot and long days are not conductive are not conductive to proper bulb, short days are very favorable for the formation of bulbs. It can be grown well at elevations, of 1000 to 1300 meters above sea- level. In India it is cultivated in Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat (Rajkot division).

Soil and Planting Time:

According to Rao and Purewal (1957) and joshi (1961), garlic requires medium black to well drainder loamy soils rich in humus, with fairly good content of potash. The crop raised on sandy or loose soil does not keep for long and the bulbs too are lighter in weight. In heavy soils, the bulbs produced are deformed, and during harvesting, many bulbs are broken buril so they do not keep well in storage. They get discolored in badly drained soils.

Seed Rate and Time of Sowing:

In garlic seed rate is 315 to 500 cloves per ha. It taken in rabi season and summer season. Crop is planted from August- Novemeber.

Layout and Spacing:

Ridges and furrow type of layout is follow. Spacing is given.

Improved Varieties:

Fawari, Rajli gaddi, G-41, Selection – 2, Selection – 10, Garlic 9 Allium Sativum):

1. Godavari:

Developed by selection from Jamnagar collection and released in 1987. Bulbs are pink in colour and medium in size with 25- 30 cloves per bulb. It is tolerate to eriophyte mites. Duration is 130- 140 days. Duration is 130- 140 days. Average yield is 150 quintal per hectare.

2. Sweta:

Sweta is developed by selection from a local germplasm collected from Gujarat and released in 1987. Bulbs are medium in size with 20-25 cloves per bulb of white colour. Duration is 120- 130 days. Average yield is 130 quintals per hectare.

Manures and Fertilizer:

25 to 30 cart load of well rotten FYM or Compost applied at the time soil preparation per hectare. In garlic according PKV, Akola recommendation 50 kg N, 50 Kg P2o5 and 50 kg K2O should be applied. A side dressing of 50 kg n may be given one month after sowing.

Interculture Operation:

First Interculture is given with hand or khurpi one month after the sowing. Second weeding is given one month after the first weeding and hoeing. According to Joshi (1961 ). Hoeing, the crop just before the formation of bulbs about 2 ½ months from sowing) looseness the soil and helps in the setting of bigger and well filled bulbs. The crop should not be weeded out or hoed at a letter stage because this may damage the stem and impair the keeping quality of sprouting and the cloves already formed.

Irrigation:

First irrigation is given after sowing and then field is irrigated after every 10 to 15 days till the season warms up. At this stage more frequent irrigation are required. There should be no scarcity moisture in the growing season; otherwise the development of the bulbs will be checked. When the bulbs are matured then irrigation should be given sparingly. The last irrigation should be given 2 -3 days before harvesting for making it easy without damaging the bulbs.

Harvesting:

Garlic is crop of 4 ½ to 5 months duration. When the leaves start Turing yellowish or brownish and show signs of drying up (usually about a month or so for the emergence of seed stalks, the crop is ready for harvest. The plants are then pulled out or uprooted with a country plough and are tied into small bundles, which are then kept in the filed or in the whade for 2- 3 days for curing and drying so that the bulbs become hard and their keeping quality is prolonged. The bulbs may be started by handling them on bamboo sticks or by keeping them on dry sand on the floor in a well ventilated room on dry floor.

Yield:

In garlic 50 to 70 quintals / ha yield is obtained.

An engineering graduate turns into a successful entrepreneur

PROTRAYS: The cost of one tray is Rs. 180 and has 72 saplings in it.

Vagaries of the monsoon have forced a number of farmers growing traditional crops to seek viable alternatives.

Trees such as teak and casuarina are becoming popular since once planted, the trees require little attention and water and their wood fetches a good price in the market.

Casuarina is called Savukku maram in Tamil, Sarugudu in Telugu, Surve mara in Kannada and Jangli saru in Hindi.

A young engineering graduate, P. Sakthivel, from Vegakollai in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, is proving how this tree variety is able to fetch good income for him. Presently his monthly income is Rs. 50,000 to Rs. 1 lakh.
Different thinking

Mr. Sakthivel’s father is also a farmer and was concentrating on his nursery business, growing flowering plants. But Mr. Sakthivel (21 years) who is presently studying for a Masters in Electronics and Communication thought differently.

“I wanted to be my own boss and did not have the mindset to work under anybody. I realised that in agriculture both mind and body work equally during field work. And I can give employment to some rural people,” he says.

He was not interested in growing shade trees but some tree, which could generate very good income.

“I learnt, after a lot of searching, that Junghuhniana Casuarina variety can generate good income and started producing the seedlings in my nursery,” says Sakthivel. About 35 women and 15 men work in his nursery and more than 50 workers are engaged in indirect supply of inputs like sand and fertilizer needed for his farm.

The wood of this casuarina variety has a good demand in the market for making paper, ropes, and mirror frames. It is ideal for growing in dry lands and rain-fed areas.
Height

It has long tapered roots, which penetrate deep into the soil. The tree reaches a height of 30-40 feet in 3-4 years of planting. The trunk of a full-grown tree measures about 40cm in girth.

For propagating the seedlings, stems are selected from one year old trees and are dipped in a root inducing hormone solution for two minutes and planted in protrays kept under shade net for 50 days and then sold. The cost of one tray is Rs. 180 and has about 72 saplings in it

“There is very low risk factor in this type of cultivation. Hence it is always profitable to take this up as a profession. Farmers should bear in mind that the ideal time for planting the saplings is during April-May in Tamil Nadu,” says Mr. N. Madhu Balan, Horticulture expert in Dharmapuri.
Any soil

The tree can be grown in any soil type and requires very little water. About 3,570 saplings are required for a hectare. Before planting it is advisable to plough the land well after applying farmyard manure. The saplings are to be planted either in straight lines or in triangles at a four feet intervals.

Weeding should be done once a week for the first three months and thereafter once a month.

Fertilizer application of about 100 kg of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and 50kg of urea must be done on the sixth and twelfth months after planting. Compared to other crops the return from this variety is very high.

“A farmer needs to spend about Rs. 35,000 towards cost of saplings, fertilizer and transport. One tonne of wood is priced at Rs. 7,500 in the market and farmers can earn about Rs. 4 lakh from one hectare in 4-5 years,” says Mr. Sakthivel.
Several industries

There are number of paper industries in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh seeking raw material for their mills and hence the distributors immediately come and register with the farmers growing this wood, according to Mr. Madhu.

Moreover the straight woods of this tree have good scope in building houses which fetch more rate than the paper mills.
Marketing

Mr. Sakthivel uses the facebook as a major marketing channel for his product.

His facebook page ‘santhinurseryplants’ has several hundreds of farmers from Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra as customers.

“I have been able to make this venture a success balancing both my study and business. My future plan is to try the same in tissue culture banana,” says Mr. Sakthivel with a smile.

Interested farmers can contact Mr. P. Sakthivel at Santhi nursery, Vegakollai post, Panruti Taluk, Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu; phone: 9159705868 and mobile: 887021973 and Mr. N.Madhu Balan, horticulture specialist and admin of Vivasayam karkalam face book group, mobile: 9751506521, Dharmapuri.

Keywords: Casuarina, Savukku maram, P. Sakthivel, nursery, saplings

LikeComment

Share

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF TOMATO UNDER GREENHOUSE

Greenhouse cultivation of vegetables offers distinct advantages of quality, productivity and favourable market prices to the growers. Vegetable growers can substantially increase their income by greenhouse cultivation of vegetables in off season as the vegetables produced in the normal season generally do not fetch good returns due to large availability of these vegetables in the market. Greenhouse technology is popular in countries viz., U.S, Canada and Europe.  It allows precision farming and overcomes limitations of space and disadvantages of climate change. Promotion of protected cultivation will revolutionize vegetable cultivation. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world next to china with an annual production of 136.18 million tonnes from an area of 8.2 million ha. Immediately after independence, growth rate in vegetable production was only 0.5% which remained for many decades and rose to 2.50% during the last decades. Technological advancement with improved genetic pool and management practices have helped to achieve the average productivity of 15t/ha in the country. India requires about 250 million tonnes of vegetables to meet the nutritional requirement of an estimated 12000 million people by 2020. Even though the productivity levels of vegetables have increased, it will not be sufficient to feed the increasing population. Production of vegetables under protected conditions is increasing worldwide. Protected horticulture is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth. In these systems various factors of the environment such as air, temperature, humidity, atmospheric gas composition etc., are controlled. Protected cultivation in the form of greenhouses, net houses, low tunnels, mulches etc., offers several advantages to grow crops of high quality and yields, thus using the land and other resources more efficiently. 

Selection of vegetables

The choice of vegetable crop to be raised in greenhouse is made on the basis of the size of the structure, the economics of the crop production and income generated (profit). It may be possible to raise any crop at any time in a high cost green house, selection of crops is more critical in case of ordinary low cost green house. The high value vegetable crops viz., tomato, capsicum, brinjal and chilli have been more popular for cultivation in greenhouse. The labour and other input requirement per unit area in greenhouse is more than that of open field conditions. There is always a large and sustained demand of fresh vegetables round the year in big cities. Among vegetables tomato is the first crop grown in greenhouses worldwide. It is relatively easy to grow under protected conditions.

Selection of cultivars

Selection of the most suitable cultivar is a prerequisite for successful tomato cultivation in greenhouse. Important considerations are size, shape and colour (red or pink). Important characteristics related to cultivars include high yields, freedom from cracking, disease resistance, high percentage of number of fruits and freedom from green shoulder, good shelf life and TSS. Some of indeterminate elite varieties/ hybrids which have performed exceedingly under low cost greenhouses are DARL – 303, HT - 6 Sun – 7611, NS – 1237, Naveen, NS – 4130, Abiman, COTH – 1, NDT – 5, NDT – 120, Pusa Divya, Meenakshi,  and Lakshmi.

Climate requirements

Temperature and light intensity affect fruit set, pigmentation and nutritive value of the fruits. Critical factor in setting fruits of the tomato is the night temperature, the optimum range being 16°C to 22°C. Fruits fail to set at 12°C or below. Fruit set is also reduced markedly when average maximum day temperature goes above 32°C and average minimum night temperature goes above 22°C. At temperatures below 10°C, red and yellow colours do not develop. The ideal range for development of both red and yellow colours is 18-250C. Under greenhouse conditions tomato crop can be grown for long duration (10-12 months) by cooling the greenhouses during summer months (April to July) and by heating the greenhouses during peak winter (December and January) months.

Preparation of soil, nursery raising and planting

In northern plains the tomato crop is planted from first August to second week of September under greenhouse conditions. August or September planted crop is continued upto June or July under climate controlled greenhouse conditions. If the greenhouse is naturally ventilated then the crop can be grown up to April or May months. Nursery for greenhouse tomato is raised under protected structure mostly in soilless media in plastic trays to produce disease free and virus free seedlings. The seedlings are ready for transplanting within 28-30 days under soil-less media. Healthy seedlings are transplanted at a planting distance of 60 x 45 cm mostly under drip irrigation system for efficient use of water and fertilizers for long duration cultivation of tomato crop and low pressure drip irrigation system can also be used for greenhouse tomato cultivation. Transplanting is mostly done in the early morning or late evening time for better establishment of the seedlings.

Training, pruning and trellising

Greenhouse grown tomatoes needs regular trellising, training and pruning of plants. Single stem (main) should be retained by removing all side shoots or suckers that develop between leaf petioles and the stems. Usually in early stage shoots are removed by snapping them off, not cutting them by knife, blade or scissors, as diseases mainly the virus (T.M.V.) can be transmitted from one plant to other. Plants are supported by plastic or binder twine, loosely anchored on the base of plants with the help of plastic clips or directly by non-slip loop and to overhead support wires (11 to 12 gauge) running to the length of the row of the bed. Overhead wires are fixed normally 8 to 9 feet above the surface of the bed and are anchored firmly to the support structure. Twine should be wrapped clockwise around the vine as it develops with one complete swirl every three leaves. The vine should be supported by the twine under the leaves, not the stems of the flower truss or fruit clusters. Twine is not wrapped around the growing tip otherwise the tip may break. When the plants reached overhead supporting wires, untie the twine (or take down the twine) from the twine roll after unlocking it to take down the vines at least 2 to 3 feet in every 15-20 days gap. Vines with twines are moved in one direction with twine roll in one row on the overhead wires and in opposite direction in the adjacent row. The plants must be pruned and trellised on regular basis for 10-11 months life cycle of the tomato crop in greenhouse and as a result plants are 30-35 feet longer in their 10-11 months life cycle of cultivation. Clearly, the greenhouse will not be able to accommodate the plants vertically. As fruits mature on the lower parts of the vines, pinch off older leaves below the fruits. This will, provide air circulation, which helps to reduce the incidence of the diseases and opens vines up for spraying and harvesting. Removal of excess fruits will also result in larger tomatoes at harvest that can fetch good price.

Pollination requirement in green house

Although tomato is highly self pollinated crop but aided pollination of flowers is generally needed in the green house grown tomatoes due to limited air movement and high humidity. In several countries bumble bees are being used as a pollinator for the green house tomato crops. Bumble bees are the perfect pollinators, even under environmental stress condition (i.e. under low and high temperature conditions). But in several countries an electric or battery –powered vibrators are being used to vibrate flowers cluster above the area where they originate from the stem. The vibration will release sufficient pollens necessary for pollination. This practice is done twice a day (10:00 AM to 11.00 AM and 2.0-3.0 PM). Flowers are vibrated or shaken every day. Air from a mistflower also has been found effective in pollinating tomatoes inside the protected structures. If tobacco mosaic virus (T.M.V) has been a problem the vibrator should be wiped after each use with a clean cloth.

Fertigation

Application of 350:350:350 kg NPK/ha in the form of water soluble fertilizers through fertigation at weekly intervals is recommended for getting maximum productivity and best quality of tomato under cost effective greenhouse.

Cooling and heating of the greenhouses

Most of the climate controlled greenhouses are having evaporative cooling system. In northern plains of our country cooling is done from September to October and from April to June months. Evaporative cooling system is quite effective when the relative humidity in the atmosphere is below 40%. Heating of the greenhouses can be done from 15th of December to end of January, to increase the temperature of the greenhouse during nights, so that the temperature can not fall below 140 C. Heating and cooling of the greenhouses are required during growing of tomato for a period of 10-12 months.

Harvesting and post harvest handling of fruits

Harvesting of tomato fruits is a continual process throughout the growing cycle. Generally most of the varieties are ready for first picking 75 to 85 days after transplanting. Big size tomato (slicing tomato) fruits are harvested singly with attached calyx, and are graded and packed according to grades. Under greenhouse conditions tomato can yield 100- tonnes/ha.  During the summer months harvesting should be done in the early morning or late evening to avoid post harvest losses.

Plant protection in greenhouse

Mostly greenhouses are designed to minimize or eliminate insects and diseases problems so that plants can be grown pesticide free under many conditions. Generally all four sides of greenhouses are covered with insect proof nylon net of 40 to 50 mesh size to prevent insects, including white flies, thrips, aphids etc. Preventing insects from entering the protected structures is the best way of controlling virus and insect problems. However, if required, one or two sprays of insecticides can be done on need base. One spray of metasystox @ 1.5 ml/litre of water is done 10 days after transplanting of the crop. If there is severe problem of mites, we can spray dicofol @ 2.0 ml/litre of water. Sometimes white flies or thrips entered in greenhouses, yellow and blue trappers are used for trapping of such insects. For control of root knot nematodes and other soil borne pathogens, soil sterilization is most effective and it is done by applying the formaldehyde (37%), one month before transplanting of the crop. Sometimes if some plants are infested with T.M.V, such plants are to be removed immediately to avoid further spread of virus inside the greenhouse.

Production Technology : Sweet Corn

Land Selection: Since sweet corn needs to be consumed in a short time after harvest it fits well in periutban agriculture. Hence sweet corn can be very profitably grown in areas surrounding large cities and towns which are frost free during the season of growing. It can successfully be grown in well-drained soils with pH of 5.5-7.0. However, it may be grown in all types of soil and is moderately salt-tolerant. Places where sweet corns are to be grown must have facility for 5-6 irrigations. Moisture stress, particularly at the time of anthesis adversely affect the yield and quality of the produce. Since all genes governing sweet corn are recessive, sweet corn is to be grown at a field isolation of 250 m from other corn or by a tassel date of 14 days. Land Preparation: Sweet corn requires thorough disc ploughing followed by land leveling initially. Thereafter ridges and furrows are to be laid out with an inter row distance of 75 cm. It is recommended to incorporate FYM @5-6 tonnes/ha• at the last ploughing. Seedbed preparation and seed handling is critical for all types of sweet corn, but especially supersweets. Good soil to seed contact, uncrusted soil, and optimal soil moisture help seedlings emerge. Careful seed handling is also important because if the seed coat is cracked, solutes leak from the seed, attracting pathogenic fungi. Rapid uniform seed emergence also pro¬motes uniform maturity. Time of Sowing: The planting time is June-July in kharif (rainy) and September-October in rabi (winter) season.

Varieties Both white and yellow grain types of sweet corn are grown. Some of the recommended sweet corn varieties released for cultivation are Madhuri, Priya and Almora sweet corn in India. A brief description of these sweet corn varieties is given in Table 1.

Popular sweet corn varieties

Table 1. Popular sweet corn varieties in India
S.No.	Varieties	Recommended				Days to	Yield
		Seasons		Areas		harvest
1. 2.	Madhuri Priya	Kharif (K) &Rabi (R)		Across the country in Kharif & peninsular India in Rabi		70-75 days (K) 80-85 days (R)	66,000 cobs/ha
3.	Almora sweet corn

Seed Rate: New seed should be used each year as seed quality (vlgour) gets reduced substantially within a year, especially in the case of supersweets. Recommended plant population for optimum yield is 45000-60000 plants per hectare with row spacing of 75-100 cm and intra row spacing of 15-30 cm. This will require 10-11 Kg of su or se corn seed per ha. Supersweet corn seed contains a large quantity of sugar, which causes the seed to be crinkled and smaller. Therefore, supersweet sweet corn varieties have a higher seed count (500 seed per Kg) than other sweet corn types (325 seed per Kg) and will require less seed (5 to 6 Kg/ha). Seed Treatment: Seed treatment with Imidachloprid 70WS @5g/Kg seed takes care of insect pests up to 30 DAS and fungicide treatment helps to prevent the attack of damping-off fungi.

Method of Sowing: Two seeds per hill are dibbled manually or mechani¬cally one third from the top on the side of the ridge. Sowing on ridges serves the twin purpose of water conservation and protection from water logging in the initial stages to which sweet corn is highly susceptible. Planting depth should be 3-4 cm for all cultivars except for supersweets, which are planted 2.5 cm deep. Plants are thinned to one plant per hill 10-12 days after emergence. Normal (su) and sugary enhanced (se) sweet corn should not be planted earlier than 7 to 10 days before the average date of the last severe frost. At least 3 rows of each variety should be sown at each planting to assure good pollination. Seeds of sh-2 varieties are less vigorous than other sweet corn types, which can lead to reduced and uneven crop stand. Researchers have suggested that the reduced vigour is related to reduced starch reserves for germination, cracked seed coats and increased sugars, which render the seed more susceptible to diseases.

Sweet corn variety Madhuri

Several precautions are suggested to ensure the best possible stand. Seed should be handled carefully and preferably with a plate-less planter in case of mechanized sowing so that seeds will not be damaged. All seeds should be treated with insecticide and fungicide (check with seed companies to see if treatment has been applied be¬fore purchasing seed). Planting of supersweet varieties should be delayed until the soil warms to 16°C. Transplanting: Sweet corn is seldom transplanted, but this can be done in special cases to ensure plant stands and early yields. To grow transplants, seeds are sown 3 weeks before the expected transplanting date in trays within 4 cm cells. The transplants must be grown and transplanted withoutexperiencing any stress, e.g., water, fertilizer or temperature. Stressed plants will tassel early, and yields will be reduced significantly. Nutrient Management: Fertilizer must be applied according to soil test results (Table 2). A general recommendation would be to apply a total of 100-120 Kg of nitrogen, 50-60 Kg of phosphate (P205) and 40-60 Kg potash (K20) per ha. For early plantings, when cold conditions are often encountered (16°C), use a "starter" fertilizer (e.g., 18-46-0 per ha) for improving seedling vigour, stand establishment and early plant growth. Fertilizer should be applied in 1 or 2 bands approximately 7-8 cm to the side and 5-7 cm below the seed. The market demands sweet corn with long, green flag leaves and dark green husks. To accomplish this, an adequate supply of nitrogen must be maintained in the soil.

Table 2. Fertilizer requirements for sweet corn
Fertilizer timing	Nitrogen (Kg/Ha)	Phosphorus (Kg/Ha)	Potassium (Kg/Ha)
Sweet corn for fresh market
Total recommended	100-120	50-60	40-60
Broadcast three weeks before planting	30-40	50-60	40-60
Topdress when corn is 25 days old	30-40	0	0
Band placement (at flowering)	25	0	0
Sweet corn for processing
Total recommended	110-130	60-80	55-65
Broadcast three weeks before planting	40-50	60-80	55-65
Topdress when corn is 25 days old	25-40	0	0
Band placement (at flowering)	25	0	0

Weed Management: A field that does not contain noxious weeds must be selected. Crop rotation is important for limiting the build up of troublesome weeds. Shallow cultivation should be used in concert with chemicals for weed control. The crop should remain weed-free during the early stages of plant growth; otherwise, yields might be substantially reduced. Several herbicides are available for weed control. Efficient weed control is achieved for 30-35 days through a spray of the herbicide Atrazine @ 1 Kg ai/ha 1-2 days after the initial irrigation. If double cropping is practiced, it must be borne in mind that the crop is sensitive to herbicide carryover, particularly atrazine or atrazine-containing products. Therefore, selection of herbicides should be made accordingly. Water Management: Depending on the soil type,. the number of irrigations varies from 4-5 irrigations in heavy soils and 7 -8 irrigations in light soils. A grower should be prepared to irrigate at least 2.5-4.0 cm a week in order to produce high quality sweet corn. The most critical time period to have adequate moisture is during tasseling and silking. Intercultivation: Top dressing of Urea is done 25 days after emergence after running a cultivator in between the rows that will help weed control and better root aeration apart from soil water conservation. Subsequently, a ridger is run to prevent plant lodging and minimize volatilization losses of urea. Top dressing with Urea is followed by irrigation. Intercropping: Sweet corn being a highly remunerative crop can successfully be cultivated in peri urban agriculture. However, instead of cultivating sweet corn as sole crop it may be intercropped with other highly remunerative crops like marigold, tuberose, gladiolus, spices, pea etc. This provides additional income to the farmers from unit area and makes agriculture more sustainable.

Intercropping of sweet corn with spinach

Intercropping of sweet corn with radish

Pest and Disease Management: A preventive spray of Endosulfan 35EC @2m1/1 of water is given to 10-14 days old plants to take care of stalk borers Chilo partellus in kharif and Sesamia inferens in rabi. Sweet corn must be free of insect larvae or worms for shipping or distant markets. The corn ear worm, Helicoverpa armigera is by far the most difficult insect to control in sweet corn. Eggs are laid on the young silks where they hatch and the larvae feed on the silks and tips of the ears. It is advised to direct the spray at the ear zone. When tassel shoots appear, spray insecticide, then consecutive applications should be made depending on the situation. Disease problems tend to be sporadic. Troublesome diseases include leaf blight and post-flowering stalk rots. Use crop rotation, and avoid sequential planting in adjacent fields to minimize disease. A spray with Bavistin @1 g/litre takes care of foliar diseases. Harvesting of Cobs: Plant growth picks up after the knee high stage rapidly as this is the grand growth stage. About 45 days after emergence, the tassel emerges and 2-3 days later the silks emerge. Top dressing with urea is done at tassel emergence. Sweet corn is an abundant pollen producer and seed set is usually very high. There should be no moisture stress at tasseling-silking stage as moisture stress reduces seed set and in extreme cases barren ears are also seen. As an ear approaches maturity, sugar changes to starch, the hull becomes tougher, and the kernels pass through stages called pre-milk, milk, early dough, and dough. At field temperatures of 16°C, an ear may remain in prime condition for as long as 5 days, while at 30°C it might remain in prime condition for only 1-2 days. Corn will be ready for harvest approximately 18-22 days after completion of pollination (indicated by drying of silk). As the field nears maturity, a few ears should be examined daily to determine the time for the first picking. Corn is ready for harvest when the ear is full size for the variety, has a tight husk, and has somewhat dried silks. The kernels are fully developed and exude a milky liquid when punctured. Delaying the harvest will progressively reduce the sugar content in the kernels. The ear husks are still green at this stage and the kernels remain lustrous at milky stage. Whether harvested by hand or machine, sweet corn should be collected at night or early in the morning, when the environment remains cool. Every effort should be made to keep harvested ears cool and in shaded areas. Ears can be eaten raw, as a dessert or ears can even be steam boiled, salted and eaten, which is more relishing. Under good management, two ears are borne per plant especially in the rabi (winter) season. Staggered planting of sweet corn at intervals of 7-10 days will enable farmers to harvest sweet corn ears at intervals for continuous supply to the market and thereby get continuous and higher returns. Harvesting of Green Fodder: In addition to high market value for sweet corn one additional advantage is that immediately after harvest of green cobs, the plants remain green and can readily be used as fodder. It is estimated that up to 250-400 q/ha fodder may be harvested from one crop, which provides additional income to the farmers. Post-harvest Handling: Because sweet corn has a high respiration rate, it produces heat which can cause ears in bulk trailer loads to heat up considerably during delays between picking and precooling. The longer the delay, the greater the heating, conversion of sugar to starch, and subsequent quality loss. Sweet corn must be moved quickly from the field to packing sheds, where it should be rapidly sorted, packed, and cooled. Sweet corn is generally packed in wire bound wooden crates, which can hold from 4 to 6 dozen ears, depending on the size of the crate or ears. However, cabbage bags or wax impregnated cartons can be used and typically hold about 60 ears. The ears are graded according to the raw ear size and packed in polythene bags and sold in the market. Under room temperatures sweet corn will lose 50% or more of its sugars in 24 hours. Sweet corn should be precooled to as close to 0oC as possible, although it is rarely cooled below 4oC in commercial practice. Several methods of cooling sweet corn are available: Hydro-cooling: It consists of precooling by either showering the corn or immersing it in cold water. It is the most popular method of precooling. Immersing the corn in cold water is much more efficient than showering the corn. A dealer or engineer is to be consulted to ensure maximum efficiency and sufficient capacity to handle anticipated daily volume of sweet corn. Packaging: This is an excellent method of precooling sweet corn which is used for local, direct shipments. In this method, 7-10 Kg of crushed ice is distributed throughout the container (box or crate) during the packaging process. The amount of ice needed in a package depends on the temperatures of the corn at the time of packing and on the expected length of the marketing period. Typically about 500 g of ice for 2 Kg of sweet corn is sufficient. The main disadvantage is that if shipment to market is delayed, the package is heavy and wet. Cold Storage: To maintain best quality, sweet corn is placed in cold storage immediately after precooling. Storage can be in a refrigerated truck or in a room. Temperature is maintained as close to 0oC as possible without freezing the corn, and relative humidity of the air in the cold room at 95 percent or higher to keep the corn fresh. The corn is to be taken out as soon as possible since more than a few days in cold storage will decrease quality. Cooling in Transit: Sweet corn must also be kept cold in transit. The best method consists of blowing finely crushed ice over the top and through the corn crates, as the trucks are loaded. This method of icing keeps temperatures low during transit but provides little or no additional cooling. The refrigerated truck only maintains the temperature of the already cooled corn. It is not meant to be used as a substitute for precooling. It is important to remember that for maximum quality and value, sweet corn must be continuously and properly refrigerated from harvest until it reaches the consumer. Obtaining Earliness: Several methods can be employed to obtain an early harvest of sweet corn. The most obvious method is to choose a variety which is early to mature. Also, a more vigorous variety will germinate under less-favourable growing conditions. In addition, seeds can be sown 10 to 20 days earlier using clear plastic mulch. Photo-degradable mulch (30-day type is recommended; the plastic breaks down slowly after exposure to sunlight) can be used to eliminate the cost of removing mulch at the end of the growing season. It is recommended to apply herbicide and then cover with clear plastic. The plastic is left over the emerged plants approximately 30 days, then cut and removed. Growing corn on black plastic mulch can also enhance earliness and weed control. Corn Colour: Sweet corn comes in three colors: yellow, white and bicolour (yellow and white). Cross-pollination of yellow kernel varieties with white kernel varieties will result in production of bicolour corn. Also, if a bicolour is cross pollinated with a yellow variety, kernel colour will be predominantly yellow. Although there are geographical preferences for certain kernel colors, there is no relationship between colour and sweetness of sweet corn. Yields: If water requirements are met and other cultural practices optimized, sweet corn yields about 66000 ears per ha. High density planting can give higher number of harvested ears. Pollination: Unlike most vegetables, corn is wind pollinated and must be planted in blocks. Sweet corn of any type downwind from popcorn or field corn develops starchy kernels. Ears of supersweet sh-2 corn pollinated by a normal (su) sweet corn cultivar or a cultivar with the se gene will develop hard, ugly and starchy dent kernels. To avoid this cross¬pollination, different kernel types must be separated by at least 250 m or staggered planted so that they flower at least 14 days apart. Precautions with Modified Endosperm Sweet Corn to Avoid Xenia: Isolation of "sweet corn" cultivar plantings of different genetic types is necessary to prevent cross-pollination. Xenia is the immediate effect of foreign pollen on a variety; on sweet corn (su), it will produce a starchy kernel. Isolation can be obtained by planting at a different time, planting cultivars of different maturities, or providing barriers and border rows. All of these methods will reduce the isolation distances necessary. On a practical basis, commercial growers should provide at least 50 m separation, plant upwind of normal field corn, and use four or more border rows.